History of Millets
Millets are among the earliest cultivated cereal crops in human history. Archaeological evidence from the Cishan site in northern China dates foxtail millet cultivation to approximately 8700 BCE, making it one of the first grains to be deliberately farmed by humans -- predating rice cultivation by several thousand years. Independently, pearl millet was domesticated in the Sahel region of West Africa around 4500 BCE, and finger millet arose in the Ethiopian highlands around 5000 BCE.
On the Indian subcontinent, millets have been cultivated for at least 5,000 years. Grains of foxtail millet and browntop millet have been recovered from Indus Valley Civilization sites dating to 3300 BCE. By the time of the Vedic period (~1500 BCE), millets were well established in Indian agriculture and were mentioned in the Yajurveda as ‘Anu’ (minor grains). Tamil Sangam literature (~300 BCE) extensively references millets, with one of the five landscape divisions named ‘Thinai’ after foxtail millet.
For millennia, millets were the daily bread of millions across Asia, Africa, and parts of Europe. Their extraordinary resilience -- thriving in arid soils, withstanding drought, and maturing in as few as 60 days -- made them indispensable to dryland farming communities. However, the 20th century brought dramatic changes that pushed millets to the margins of global agriculture.
Timeline: 10,000 Years of Millets
Earliest Millet Cultivation
Archaeological excavations at the Cishan site in northern China reveal the earliest evidence of foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and broomcorn/proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) cultivation, making millets among the first domesticated cereal crops in human history.
ChinaFinger Millet Domestication
Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands of East Africa. The wild progenitor Eleusine africana is selectively cultivated by early farming communities, beginning a crop that would become a staple across Africa and South Asia.
East AfricaPearl Millet Origins
Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) begins cultivation in the Sahel region of West Africa, in areas that are now Mali and Niger. Adapted to extreme heat and drought, it becomes a lifeline crop for semi-arid tropical agriculture.
West AfricaMillets in the Indus Valley
Archaeological evidence confirms millet cultivation at multiple Indus Valley Civilization sites including Harappa. Both foxtail and browntop millet grains are recovered, indicating millets were part of the diverse agricultural base of one of the world's earliest urban civilizations.
Indian SubcontinentSorghum Domestication
Sorghum bicolor is domesticated in northeastern Africa, in the Sudan-Ethiopia region. It eventually spreads across Africa, Asia, and the Mediterranean to become the fifth most important cereal crop globally.
East AfricaPearl Millet Reaches India
Evidence of bajra (pearl millet) cultivation is found at Surkotada and Rojdi in Gujarat, indicating that pearl millet had migrated from Africa to the Indian subcontinent via ancient trade and migration routes across the Arabian Sea or overland through the Near East.
IndiaRagi in South India
Archaeological excavations at Hallur in Karnataka yield the earliest evidence of finger millet (ragi) cultivation in India. This marks the beginning of ragi's deep association with South Indian agriculture and cuisine that continues to the present day.
South IndiaVedic References
Millets are referenced in the Yajurveda as 'Anu' (minor grains), listed alongside rice (Vrihi) and barley (Yava). This textual evidence confirms that millets were an established part of the Vedic agricultural and dietary system in ancient India.
IndiaClassical Ayurvedic Texts
The Charaka Samhita, one of the foundational texts of Ayurveda, classifies millets under Trina Dhanya (grass grains) in the Sutra Sthana. Detailed descriptions of their properties (rasa, guna, virya, vipaka) and therapeutic applications are documented for the first time.
IndiaSangam Literature References
Tamil Sangam literature extensively mentions Thinai (foxtail millet), Varagu (kodo millet), and Samai (little millet) as staple crops of the ancient Tamil country. The five landscape-based divisions (Tinai) of Sangam poetry are named after agricultural crops, with Thinai (millet) representing the hill regions.
South IndiaRoman Knowledge
Pliny the Elder mentions millets in his encyclopedic work Natural History (Naturalis Historia), describing them as important grains of the ancient world. He notes their cultivation across the Roman Empire and their use as both human food and animal feed.
Roman EmpireMedieval Indian Agriculture
Millets form the backbone of agriculture on the Deccan Plateau during the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta dynasties. Jowar (sorghum), bajra (pearl millet), and ragi (finger millet) sustain large populations in the semi-arid regions of central and southern India.
IndiaBhavaprakasha Nighantu
Bhavamishra compiles the Bhavaprakasha Nighantu, a comprehensive Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia that provides detailed properties of various millets in the Dhanya Varga (grain chapter). This text becomes a key reference for understanding the Ayurvedic perspective on millets and their therapeutic uses.
IndiaGreen Revolution Begins
India's Green Revolution, led by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan and supported by Norman Borlaug's high-yield varieties, focuses on wheat and rice to address food scarcity. While it succeeds in averting famine, millet cultivation begins a steep decline as government subsidies, procurement policies, and public distribution systems favor rice and wheat.
IndiaICRISAT Research
The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), based in Hyderabad, India, intensifies research on sorghum, pearl millet, and finger millet. Their work on improved varieties, drought tolerance, and nutritional quality helps preserve millet farming in semi-arid regions worldwide.
GlobalNutri-Cereals Declaration
The Government of India officially reclassifies millets as 'Nutri-Cereals' through a gazette notification by the Ministry of Agriculture, recognizing their superior nutritional profile. India declares 2018 as the National Year of Millets, launching awareness campaigns and promoting millet inclusion in mid-day meal schemes and the Public Distribution System.
IndiaUN Resolution
India proposes a resolution to the United Nations General Assembly to declare 2023 as the International Year of Millets. The resolution is adopted with the support of 72 countries, recognizing millets' contribution to food security, nutrition, climate resilience, and sustainable agriculture.
GlobalInternational Year of Millets
The United Nations celebrates the International Year of Millets (IYM 2023). India leads global campaigns promoting millet consumption, research, and trade. Events are held across 100+ countries, millet-based menus appear at UN cafeterias, and awareness of millets as climate-smart, nutritious grains reaches an unprecedented global audience.
GlobalThe Green Revolution & Decline
The Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s transformed Indian agriculture. Led by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan and built upon Norman Borlaug's high-yield wheat and rice varieties, the initiative successfully averted widespread famine and dramatically increased food grain production. However, its singular focus on rice and wheat came at a steep cost to millet cultivation.
Government policies systematically favored rice and wheat through minimum support prices (MSP), public procurement systems, and subsidized distribution through the Public Distribution System (PDS). Irrigation infrastructure was built primarily for water-intensive paddy cultivation. Agricultural research funding flowed disproportionately toward rice and wheat improvement, while millet research was neglected.
The consequences were dramatic. Millets went from covering roughly 37% of India's cereal crop area in the 1960s to under 20% by the early 2000s. Perhaps most damagingly, millets became stigmatized as “coarse grains” and “poor people's food,” while polished white rice and refined wheat flour were seen as markers of prosperity. An entire generation grew up without millets on their plates, and traditional knowledge about millet cultivation, processing, and cooking began to fade.
The Revival
The 21st century has witnessed a remarkable millet renaissance, driven by growing awareness of nutrition, sustainability, and the limitations of monoculture agriculture.
In 2018, the Government of India took a landmark step by officially reclassifying millets as “Nutri-Cereals” through a gazette notification, recognizing their superior nutritional profile. India declared 2018 as the National Year of Millets, launching awareness campaigns and including millets in mid-day meal schemes and the Public Distribution System for the first time.
In 2021, India proposed a resolution to the United Nations General Assembly to declare 2023 as the International Year of Millets. The resolution was adopted with support from 72 countries.
The International Year of Millets (2023) was a watershed moment. India led global campaigns promoting millet consumption, research, and trade. Events were held across 100+ countries, millet-based menus appeared at UN cafeterias, and awareness of millets as climate-smart, nutritious grains reached an unprecedented global audience. Research institutions like ICRISAT intensified work on improved varieties, and startups began offering millet-based products ranging from breakfast cereals to pasta to cookies.
Today, millets stand at the intersection of some of the most pressing global challenges -- food security, malnutrition, climate change, and sustainable agriculture. Their ancient resilience has become profoundly relevant to the modern world.
Sources & References
- Sharma RK, Dash B (1976). Charaka Samhita (English Translation).
- FAO Food and Nutrition Series No. 27 (1995). Sorghum and millets in human nutrition. https://www.fao.org/3/t0818e/t0818e00.htm
- United Nations General Assembly (2021). International Year of Millets 2023. https://www.fao.org/millets-2023
- Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture (2018). Notification: Millets renamed as Nutri-Cereals.
- ICRISAT (2017). Smart Food: Millets for Food, Nutrition and Livelihood Security.
- Nagaraja Rao MS (1971). The Neolithic cultures of South India. Indian Antiquary.
- Weber SA (1998). Out of Africa: the initial impact of millets in South Asia. Current Anthropology.
- Fuller DQ (2006). Agricultural origins and frontiers in South Asia: a working synthesis. Journal of World Prehistory.
- Subramaniam N (1966). Sangam Age Tamil Literature and Agriculture.
- Lu H, Zhang J, Liu KB, Wu NQ, Li YM, Zhou KS (2009). Early millet use in northern China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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